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丘馬什人
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==簡介==
丘马什人，分佈地區在美國[[加州]]，聚居地位于[[美国]][[加利福尼亞州]][[聖路易斯-奧比斯波縣 |圣路易斯奥比斯波]]、[[聖巴巴拉縣|圣巴巴拉]]、[[文图拉县|文图拉]]和[[洛杉矶县]]([[洛杉矶]])县的部分地区，从北部的[[莫罗贝 (加利福尼亚州)|莫罗贝]]延伸到南部的[[马里布]]，包括[[海峡群岛 (加利福尼亚州)|海峡群岛]]的[[聖克魯斯島 (美國)|圣克鲁斯]]、[[聖羅莎島 (加利福尼亞州)|圣罗莎]]和[[聖米格爾島 (加利福尼亞州)|圣米格尔]]这三个岛屿，此外也在缺乏稳定水源的[[安那卡帕島|阿纳卡帕]]岛定期居住。<ref name="nps">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070522182201/http://www.nps.gov/chis/historyculture/nativeinhabitants.htm "Native Inhabitants"].</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chumash Indians on the Channel Islands |url=http://www.seathos.org/chumash-indians-on-the-channel-islands/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Sea•thos Foundation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911002012/http://www.seathos.org/chumash-indians-on-the-channel-islands/ |archive-date=September 11, 2014 |access-date=September 9, 2014}}</ref>
== 历史 ==
殖民者抵达前丘马什人口数量有许多说法。[[人类学家]][[阿尔弗雷德·路易斯·克鲁伯]]认为1770年的人口可能约为10,000<ref>A. L. Kroeber, p.883</ref>，艾伦·布朗（Alan K. Brown）认为约为15,000<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Alan K |year=1967 |title=The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel. |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116402079846 |journal=Reports of the University of California Archeological Survey |publisher=University of California |issue=69}}</ref>。舍伯恩·库克（Sherburne F. Cook）曾给出多个预测值，为8,000、13,650、20,400或18,500。<ref>S. F. Cook, 1976</ref>
一些学者<ref>Erlandson et al. 2001</ref>认为，在1542至1769年间由于与[[西班牙船员]]的间歇性接触导致疾病传入，丘马什人口也许已经大幅下降。最后，他们几乎被美国的[[加利福尼亚种族灭绝]]所消灭。1900年，他们的人数下降到200人，而目前估计在2,000<ref name="sdsu" /> 到5,000之间<ref name="nps"/>。
传统丘马什社会的人口结构相当复杂，一大特点是其“Aqi性别”。“Aqi”是丘马什人的是第三种性别，其生理上是男性，但从事女性工作并穿着女性服装。这一性别的存在可能与同性恋有关。<ref>{{Cite book|title=Archaeologies of sexuality|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|others=Schmidt, Robert A., 1953-, Voss, Barbara L., 1967-|isbn=978-0-415-22366-9|location=London|oclc=70746810}}</ref>
[[水獭]]和[[海豹]]等海洋动物是沿海丘马什居民的主要食物，但也有研究表示他们会用这些动物换取内陆的食物，如鹿肉<ref name="Gamble 156"/>。
此外还有食用各种[[鲍鱼]]、[[蛤蜊]]和[[海蜗牛]]<ref name="Hogan">{{Cite web |last=Hogan |first=C. M. |title=Los Osos Back Bay |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |url-status=dead |website=The Megalithic Portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501082811/http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nwmarinelife.com/htmlswimmers/s_nuttalli.html Intertidal Marine Invertebrates of the South Puget Sound (2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216051534/http://www.nwmarinelife.com/htmlswimmers/s_nuttalli.html|date=February 16, 2012}}</ref>。
[[橡子]]是一种重要的[[植物]]性食物，会被丘马什人磨碎并煮成汤<ref>{{Cite web |title=Daily Life {{!}} Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History |url=https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/daily-life |website=www.sbnature.org |access-date=2022-04-23 |archive-date=2022-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125193944/https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/daily-life |dead-url=no }}</ref>。他们还会用''Malosma laurina''的干燥果实制成面粉<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last=Timbrook |first=Jan |year=1990 |title=Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians, California, Based On Collections by John P. Harrington |journal=[[Economic Botany]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |page=236–253 |doi=10.1007/BF02860489 |s2cid=25807034}}</ref>。
=== 草药 ===
* Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. ''The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization''. University of California Press, Berkeley.
* Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. ''The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970''. University of California Press, Berkeley.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Coombs | first1 = G. | last2 = Plog | first2 = F. | year = 1977 | title = The conversion of the chumash Indians: An ecological interpretation | jstor = 4602423 | journal = Human Ecology | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 309–328 | doi=10.1007/bf00889174| s2cid = 153680246 }}
* Cordero R. The Ancestors Are Dreaming Us. News From Native California [serial online]. Spring2012 2012;25(3):4–27. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Dartt-Newton | first1 = D. | last2 = Erlandson | first2 = J. M. | year = 2006 | title = Little Choice for the Chumash: Colonialism, Cattle, and Coercion in Mission Period California | journal = American Indian Quarterly | volume = 30 | issue = 3/4| pages = 416–430 | doi=10.1353/aiq.2006.0020| s2cid = 161990367 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Erlandson | first1 = Jon M. | last2 = Rick | first2 = Torben C. | last3 = Kennett | first3 = Douglas J. | last4 = Walker | first4 = Philip L. | year = 2001 | title = Dates, demography, and disease: Cultural contacts and possible evidence for Old World epidemics among the Island Chumash | journal = Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 11–26 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Gamble | first1 = Lynn H. | year = 2002 | title = Archaeological Evidence for the Origin of the Plank Canoe in North America | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_2002-04_67_2/page/301 | journal = American Antiquity | volume = 67 | issue = 2| pages = 301–315 | doi=10.2307/2694568| jstor = 2694568 | s2cid = 163616908 }}
* Gamble, L. H., & Enki Library eBook. (2008). The chumash world at European contact (1st ed.). Us: University of California Press. Retrieved from http://sjpl.enkilibrary.org/EcontentRecord/11197
* Glassow, Michael A., Lynn H. Gamble, Jennifer E. Perry, and Glenn S. Russell. 2007. Prehistory of the Northern California Bight and the Adjacent Transverse Ranges. In ''California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity''. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York and Plymouth UK: Altamira Press.
* Hogan, C. Michael. 2008. [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18502 ''Morro Creek''.] Ed. A. Burnham.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = Terry L. | last2 = Klar | first2 = Kathryn A. | year = 2005 | title = Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_2005-07_70_3/page/457 | journal = American Antiquity | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 457–484 | doi=10.2307/40035309| jstor = 40035309 | s2cid = 161301055 }}
* King, Chester D. 1991. ''Evolution of Chumash Society: A Comparative Study of Artifacts Used for Social System Maintenance in the Santa Barbara Channel Region before A.D. 1804''. New York and London, Garland Press.
* Kroeber, A. L. 1925. ''Handbook of the Indians of California''. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78. Washington, D.C.
* [http://www.chumashindianmuseum.com Chumash Indian Museum, Thousand Oaks, CA]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401012137/http://www.sbnature.org/research/anthro/chumash/local.htm Map of Chumash towns at the time of European Settlement]
== 参考文献 ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:美國人]]