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丘馬什人
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'''丘马什人'''，（[[英語]]:Chumash），是[[美国]][[加利福尼亚州]]中部和南部沿海地区的[[美國原住民|原住民]]<ref>[https://www.istockphoto.com/hk/%E7%85%A7%E7%89%87/%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%A1%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%98%E9%A6%AC%E4%BB%80%E5%8D%B0%E7%AC%AC%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%83%E5%8A%A0%E7%A6%AE%E5%84%80%E8%88%9E%E8%B9%88-pow-wow-malibu-ca-gm1257251920-368394893南卡的丘馬什印第安人參加禮儀舞蹈Pow Wow Malibu Ca 照片檔及更多美國原住民照片]，美國原住民, 傳統, 美國- iStock</ref> <ref>[https://www.sohu.com/a/480851374_121044557 丘马什人能通往神明？400年前他们聚到风车洞，举行过某种仪式_洞穴]，搜狐，2021-08-02</ref> 。
==簡介==
丘马什人，分佈地區在美國[[加州]]，聚居地位于[[美国]][[加利福尼亞州]][[聖路易斯-奧比斯波縣 |圣路易斯奥比斯波]]、[[聖巴巴拉縣|圣巴巴拉]]、[[文图拉县|文图拉]]和[[洛杉矶县]]([[洛杉矶]])县的部分地区，从北部的[[莫罗贝 (加利福尼亚州)|莫罗贝]]延伸到南部的[[马里布]]，包括[[海峡群岛 (加利福尼亚州)|海峡群岛]]的[[聖克魯斯島 (美國)|圣克鲁斯]]、[[聖羅莎島 (加利福尼亞州)|圣罗莎]]和[[聖米格爾島 (加利福尼亞州)|圣米格尔]]这三个岛屿，此外也在缺乏稳定水源的[[安那卡帕島|阿纳卡帕]]岛定期居住。<ref name="nps">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070522182201/http://www.nps.gov/chis/historyculture/nativeinhabitants.htm "Native Inhabitants"].</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chumash Indians on the Channel Islands |url=http://www.seathos.org/chumash-indians-on-the-channel-islands/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Sea•thos Foundation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911002012/http://www.seathos.org/chumash-indians-on-the-channel-islands/ |archive-date=September 11, 2014 |access-date=September 9, 2014}}</ref>
== 历史 ==
公元前7000年至4500年的“Millingstone Horizon”时期[[遗址]]发现了丘马什人活动痕迹<ref>Glassow et al. 2007: 192–196</ref>。“Chumash ”的意思是“珠子制作者”或“贝壳人”，他们会使用''Callianax biplicata''的壳制作串珠<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>。
随着[[中世紀]][[溫暖時期]]的到来，丘马什人人口激增<ref>Fagan, ''The Long Summer'', 2004, p. 222</ref>。在西方[[传教士]]抵达之前，他们拥有150多个村庄。
[[波利尼西亚人]]可能在[[哥伦布时代]]前的跨[[大洋]]接触(公元400年至800年间)曾到过丘马什人的领地，比[[克里斯托弗·哥伦布|哥伦布]]早了近1000年<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2FMNG9GDBBLG1.DTL |title=Did ancient Polynesians visit California? |access-date=2022-06-22 |archive-date=2007-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230013157/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2FMNG9GDBBLG1.DTL |dead-url=no }}</ref>。 丘马什先进的独木舟“tomol ”<ref name="Gamble 156">(Gamble 156).</ref>设计见于整个波利尼西亚群岛，此外还有一些[[比较语言学]]的证据<ref>Arnold, Jeanne E. 1995.</ref><ref>Gamble, Lynn H. 2002.</ref>。
=== 西班牙到来和传教时期（1542-1834） ===
1542年，[[西班牙人]][[胡安·罗德里格斯·卡布里略]]成为第一个与上[[加利福尼亚]]沿海部落接触的[[欧洲人]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spanish California {{!}} Early California History: An Overview {{!}} Articles and Essays {{!}} California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 {{!}} Digital Collections {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/spanish-california/ |website=Library of Congress |access-date=2020-08-18 |archive-date=2022-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623183724/https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/spanish-california/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
卡布里略死后被埋葬在圣米格尔岛，但他的手下带回了一本[[日记]]，其中记载了许多丘马什村庄的名称和人口数量。
[[西班牙]]由此开始宣告对这片区域（现在的加利福尼亚州）的所有权，但直到1769年才第一批西班牙士兵和传教士才抵达这里。
到1770年底，他们已经在丘马什人所在地南部的[[聖地牙哥 (加利福尼亞州)|圣地亚哥]]和北部的[[蒙特雷 (加利福尼亚州)|蒙特雷]]建立了传教处和军事要塞<ref>Brown 1967</ref>。
随着[[欧洲人]]的到来，丘马什人和他们的传统生活方式受到了前所未有的冲击<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>。
[[圣路易斯奥比斯波传教士所]]（Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa）成立于1772年，是在丘马什地区的第一个[[传教所]]，也是其五个传教所中最北的。下一个成立的是1782年的、位于圣克拉拉河河口附近太平洋海岸的圣布埃纳文图拉传教所（Mission San Buenaventura）。同样位于[[太平洋]]海岸的还有1786年成立的圣巴巴拉传教所（Mission Santa Barbara）。
布里斯玛·康塞普西翁传教所（Mission La Purisima Concepción）于1789年在圣巴巴拉北部到圣路易斯奥比斯波沿线建立。最后一个圣伊内斯传教所（Mission Santa Ynez）于1804年在圣伊内斯河沿岸建立。大多数丘马什人都在1772年至1806年间加入了一个或多个传教所，但海峡群岛的大部分土著居民直到1816年才加入<ref>McLendon and Johnson 1999</ref>。
=== 墨西哥时代（1834-1848） ===
墨西哥于1834年控制了这些传教所。丘马什人要么逃往内地，要么被新的管理者奴役。他们很多都在墨西哥的大牧场上进行繁重的劳动。1849年后，随着人口减少和移民者的抢夺，大部分丘马什人失去了他们的土地。1855年100多名剩余的丘马什人被安置在圣伊内斯传教所附近的一小块{{cvt|120|acre}}的土地上，这片土地最终成为唯一的丘马什保留地。<ref>(Pritzker).</ref>
=== 美国时代（1848-） ===
1901年，丘马什人的圣伊内斯保留地（Santa Ynez Reservation）正式成立，但自1965年最后一位讲丘马什语（Barbareño language）的[[土著]]玛丽· 伊（Mary Yee）去世后，不再有丘马什人懂得说自己的[[母语]]。
1970年代开始，一些丘马什人开始追溯自己的[[血统]]并弘扬其[[传统文化]]。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haley |first=Brian D. |last2=Wilcoxon |first2=Larry R. |date=September 2005 |title=How Spaniards Became Chumash and Other Tales of Ethnogenesis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_2005-09_107_3/page/432 |journal=American Anthropologist |publisher=American Anthropological Association |volume=107 |issue=3 |page=432–445 |doi=10.1525/aa.2005.107.3.432 |jstor=3567028}}</ref>
== 人口 ==
殖民者抵达前丘马什人口数量有许多说法。[[人类学家]][[阿尔弗雷德·路易斯·克鲁伯]]认为1770年的人口可能约为10,000<ref>A. L. Kroeber, p.883</ref>，艾伦·布朗（Alan K. Brown）认为约为15,000<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Alan K |year=1967 |title=The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel. |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116402079846 |journal=Reports of the University of California Archeological Survey |publisher=University of California |issue=69}}</ref>。舍伯恩·库克（Sherburne F. Cook）曾给出多个预测值，为8,000、13,650、20,400或18,500。<ref>S. F. Cook, 1976</ref>
一些学者<ref>Erlandson et al. 2001</ref>认为，在1542至1769年间由于与[[西班牙船员]]的间歇性接触导致疾病传入，丘马什人口也许已经大幅下降。最后，他们几乎被美国的[[加利福尼亚种族灭绝]]所消灭。1900年，他们的人数下降到200人，而目前估计在2,000<ref name="sdsu" />到5,000之间<ref name="nps"/>。
传统丘马什社会的人口结构相当复杂，一大特点是其“Aqi性别”。“Aqi”是丘马什人的是第三种性别，其生理上是男性，但从事女性工作并穿着女性服装。这一性别的存在可能与同性恋有关。<ref>{{Cite book|title=Archaeologies of sexuality|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|others=Schmidt, Robert A., 1953-, Voss, Barbara L., 1967-|isbn=978-0-415-22366-9|location=London|oclc=70746810}}</ref>
== 语言 ==
[[历史]]上曾存在多种[[丘马什语]]，这在[[语言学家]][[约翰·皮博迪·哈灵顿]]未发表的田野笔记中很详细的记录，但现在已经不存在任何丘马什母语人士。
丘马什语中记载比较多的是Barbareño 、 Ineseño和Ventureño这三种。
== 文化 ==
在西方传教士抵达之前，他们拥有150多个村庄，有多种[[方言]]。
他们懂得制作篮子、串珠，会使用[[草药]]，存在岩石艺术<ref>Barry.</ref>。他们拥有萨满，会观测星象，订制日历<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>。
===神话===
丘马什人的世界观的核心是万物有灵。根据托马斯·布莱克本（Thomas Blackburn），丘马什人没有[[創世神話]]，但苏珊·桑特里（Susan Suntree）说丘马什人“假设宇宙有三层或五层。
人类占据了由两条巨蛇撑起来的中间区域”，他们认为[[史前人]]（First People）被洪水毁灭，之后才是现在的历史。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Suntree|first=Susan|title=Sacred Sites: The Secret History of Southern California|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|year=2010|isbn=9780803231986|pages=276}}</ref>
人类的中层世界（'antap ）通过泉水和沼泽与下层世界 ( C'oyinahsup ) 相连，通过山脉与上层世界（Alapay）相连。下层世界生活着蛇、青蛙、蝾螈。当支撑中层世界的蛇扭动时，世界会发生地震。
[[水生生物]]也与下层世界的力量有联系，并且常出现在丘马什的岩石艺术中。上层世界生活着“天人”（sky people）居住的地方，主要形象为太阳、月亮、蜥蜴、天空狼（Sky Coyote）和鹰。太阳是生命之源，也是疾病和死亡之源。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bryan E.|first=Penprase|title=The Power of Stars: How Celestial Observations Have Shaped Civilization|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2010|isbn=9781441968036|pages=128–130}}</ref>
=== 篮子 ===
人类学家收集过不少丘马什人制作的篮子，现藏于[[史密森尼学会]]、[[人類博物館]]等不少博物馆中。
=== 串珠 ===
丘马什人会使用''Callianax biplicata''的壳制作串珠<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>，并将其用作货币，整个上加利福尼亚州都有发现这种[[货币]]。<ref name="Arnold 2001">Arnold 2001</ref>
=== 食物 ===
[[水獭]]和[[海豹]]等海洋动物是沿海丘马什居民的主要食物，但也有研究表示他们会用这些动物换取内陆的食物，如鹿肉<ref name="Gamble 156"/>。
此外还有食用各种[[鲍鱼]]、[[蛤蜊]]和[[海蜗牛]]<ref name="Hogan">{{Cite web |last=Hogan |first=C. M. |title=Los Osos Back Bay |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |url-status=dead |website=The Megalithic Portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501082811/http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nwmarinelife.com/htmlswimmers/s_nuttalli.html Intertidal Marine Invertebrates of the South Puget Sound (2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216051534/http://www.nwmarinelife.com/htmlswimmers/s_nuttalli.html|date=February 16, 2012}}</ref>。
[[橡子]]是一种重要的[[植物]]性食物，会被丘马什人磨碎并煮成汤<ref>{{Cite web |title=Daily Life {{!}} Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History |url=https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/daily-life |website=www.sbnature.org |access-date=2022-04-23 |archive-date=2022-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125193944/https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/daily-life |dead-url=no }}</ref>。他们还会用''Malosma laurina''的干燥果实制成面粉<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last=Timbrook |first=Jan |year=1990 |title=Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians, California, Based On Collections by John P. Harrington |journal=[[Economic Botany]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |page=236–253 |doi=10.1007/BF02860489 |s2cid=25807034}}</ref>。
=== 草药 ===
丘马什人懂得使用草药，比如他们会使用[[厚叶圣草]]治疗呼吸不畅<ref>{{Cite journal |last=James D. Adams Jr, Cecilia Garcia |year=2005 |title=Palliative Care Among Chumash People |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=2 |issue=2 |page=143–147 |doi=10.1093/ecam/neh090 |pmc=1142202 |pmid=15937554}}</ref>，用''Malosma laurina''的根皮制作治疗[[痢疾]]的草药茶<ref name="ReferenceA"/>。
丘马什人会使用[[圣曼陀罗]]制作的药水来进行成人礼。当一个男孩8岁时，他的母亲会给他准备一杯这种药水。这应该为了保证其精神健康，但一些男孩会被这种[[曼陀罗属]]植物毒死。<ref name="Garcia">{{Cite book|last=Cecilia Garcia, James D. Adams|title=Healing with medicinal plants of the west – cultural and scientific basis for their use|publisher=Abedus Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9763091-0-9}}</ref>
== 参考书目 ==
* Arnold, Jeanne E. (ed.) 2001. ''The Origins of a Pacific Coast Chiefdom: The Chumash of the Channel Islands''. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Arnold | first1 = Jeanne E. | year = 1995 | title = Transportation Innovation and Social Complexity among Maritime Hunter-Gatherer Societies | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1995-12_97_4/page/733 | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 97 | issue = 4| pages = 733–747 | doi=10.1525/aa.1995.97.4.02a00150}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Brittain | first1 = A. | last2 = Evans | first2 = S. | last3 = Giroux | first3 = A. | last4 = Hammargren | first4 = B. | last5 = Treece | first5 = B. | last6 = Willis | first6 = A. | year = 2011 | title = Climate action on tribal lands: A community based approach (resilience and risk assessment) | journal = Native Communities and Climate Change | volume = 5 | page = 555 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = Alan K. | year = 1967 | title = The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel | journal = University of California Archaeological Survey Reports | volume = 69 | pages = 1–99 }}
* Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. ''The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization''. University of California Press, Berkeley.
* Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. ''The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970''. University of California Press, Berkeley.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Coombs | first1 = G. | last2 = Plog | first2 = F. | year = 1977 | title = The conversion of the chumash Indians: An ecological interpretation | jstor = 4602423 | journal = Human Ecology | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 309–328 | doi=10.1007/bf00889174| s2cid = 153680246 }}
* Cordero R. The Ancestors Are Dreaming Us. News From Native California [serial online]. Spring2012 2012;25(3):4–27. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Dartt-Newton | first1 = D. | last2 = Erlandson | first2 = J. M. | year = 2006 | title = Little Choice for the Chumash: Colonialism, Cattle, and Coercion in Mission Period California | journal = American Indian Quarterly | volume = 30 | issue = 3/4| pages = 416–430 | doi=10.1353/aiq.2006.0020| s2cid = 161990367 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Erlandson | first1 = Jon M. | last2 = Rick | first2 = Torben C. | last3 = Kennett | first3 = Douglas J. | last4 = Walker | first4 = Philip L. | year = 2001 | title = Dates, demography, and disease: Cultural contacts and possible evidence for Old World epidemics among the Island Chumash | journal = Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 11–26 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Gamble | first1 = Lynn H. | year = 2002 | title = Archaeological Evidence for the Origin of the Plank Canoe in North America | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_2002-04_67_2/page/301 | journal = American Antiquity | volume = 67 | issue = 2| pages = 301–315 | doi=10.2307/2694568| jstor = 2694568 | s2cid = 163616908 }}
* Gamble, L. H., & Enki Library eBook. (2008). The chumash world at European contact (1st ed.). Us: University of California Press. Retrieved from http://sjpl.enkilibrary.org/EcontentRecord/11197
* Glassow, Michael A., Lynn H. Gamble, Jennifer E. Perry, and Glenn S. Russell. 2007. Prehistory of the Northern California Bight and the Adjacent Transverse Ranges. In ''California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity''. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York and Plymouth UK: Altamira Press.
* Hogan, C. Michael. 2008. [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18502 ''Morro Creek''.] Ed. A. Burnham.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = Terry L. | last2 = Klar | first2 = Kathryn A. | year = 2005 | title = Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_2005-07_70_3/page/457 | journal = American Antiquity | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 457–484 | doi=10.2307/40035309| jstor = 40035309 | s2cid = 161301055 }}
* King, Chester D. 1991. ''Evolution of Chumash Society: A Comparative Study of Artifacts Used for Social System Maintenance in the Santa Barbara Channel Region before A.D. 1804''. New York and London, Garland Press.
* Kroeber, A. L. 1925. ''Handbook of the Indians of California''. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78. Washington, D.C.
* McLendon, Sally and John R. Johnson. 1999. ''Cultural Affiliation and Lineal Descent of Chumash Peoples in the Channel Islands and the Santa Monica Mountains''. 2 volumes. Prepared for the Archeology and Ethnography Program, National Park Service by Hunter College, City University of New York and the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History.
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The Languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-23228-9}}.
* Pritzker, Barry M. ''A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-19-513877-1}}.
* Pritzker, Barry M. (2014). Chumash. In The American Mosaic: The American Indian Experience. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from http://americanindian2.abc-clio.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/
Sandos J. Christianization among the Chumash: an ethnohistoric perspective. American Indian Quarterly [serial online]. Winter91 1991;15:65–89. Available from: OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson), Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
* ''Santa Barbara Independent''. (2010, December 15). [http://www.independent.com/news/2010/dec/15/chumash-foundation-10000-grant-helps-foodbank-serv/ Chumash foundation $10,000 grant helps food bank serve healthy meals.]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Timbrook | first1 = J. | last2 = Johnson | first2 = J. R. | last3 = Earle | first3 = D. D. | year = 1982 | title = Vegetation burning by the chumash | jstor=27825120 | journal = Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 163–186 }}
* [http://www.indianz.com/IndianGaming/2015/04/08/chumash-tribe-and-leaders-sued.asp Chumash Tribe sued over casino expansion]
== 外部链接 ==
* [http://www.santaynezchumash.org/ Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians]
* [http://www.chumashlanguage.com Inezeño Chumash Language Tutorial]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120316214015/http://www.coastalbandofthechumashnation.com/ Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation]
* [http://avim.parks.ca.gov Antelope Valley Indian Museum] } at [[California Department of Parks and Recreation]]
* [http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/cultures.html Native Cultures and the Maritime Heritage Program] , [[NOAA]]
* [http://www.BarbarenoChumashCouncil.com/ Barbareno Chumash Council]
* [http://www.NorthernChumash.org/ Northern Chumash Tribal Council]
* [http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=602 Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park]
* [http://www.rain.org/video/tumamait.html Chumash Singer and Storyteller Julie Tumamait-Stenslie]
* [http://www.chumashindianmuseum.com Chumash Indian Museum, Thousand Oaks, CA]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401012137/http://www.sbnature.org/research/anthro/chumash/local.htm Map of Chumash towns at the time of European Settlement]
* {{Cite web
|title = Wishtoyo Foundation's Chumash Discovery Village, Malibu, CA
|url = http://www.wishtoyo.org/projects-cultural-nc-chumash-discovery-village.html
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121222032137/http://www.wishtoyo.org/projects-cultural-nc-chumash-discovery-village.html
|archive-date = 2012-12-22
}}
== 参考文献 ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:美國人]]
|<center>'''丘马什人'''<br><img src="https://p3.itc.cn/images01/20210802/7113f1504593464394f70ba63957099f.jpeg" width="250"></center><small>[https://www.sohu.com/a/480851374_121044557 圖片來自搜狐]</small>
|}
'''丘马什人'''，（[[英語]]:Chumash），是[[美国]][[加利福尼亚州]]中部和南部沿海地区的[[美國原住民|原住民]]<ref>[https://www.istockphoto.com/hk/%E7%85%A7%E7%89%87/%E5%8D%97%E5%8D%A1%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%98%E9%A6%AC%E4%BB%80%E5%8D%B0%E7%AC%AC%E5%AE%89%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%83%E5%8A%A0%E7%A6%AE%E5%84%80%E8%88%9E%E8%B9%88-pow-wow-malibu-ca-gm1257251920-368394893南卡的丘馬什印第安人參加禮儀舞蹈Pow Wow Malibu Ca 照片檔及更多美國原住民照片]，美國原住民, 傳統, 美國- iStock</ref> <ref>[https://www.sohu.com/a/480851374_121044557 丘马什人能通往神明？400年前他们聚到风车洞，举行过某种仪式_洞穴]，搜狐，2021-08-02</ref> 。
==簡介==
丘马什人，分佈地區在美國[[加州]]，聚居地位于[[美国]][[加利福尼亞州]][[聖路易斯-奧比斯波縣 |圣路易斯奥比斯波]]、[[聖巴巴拉縣|圣巴巴拉]]、[[文图拉县|文图拉]]和[[洛杉矶县]]([[洛杉矶]])县的部分地区，从北部的[[莫罗贝 (加利福尼亚州)|莫罗贝]]延伸到南部的[[马里布]]，包括[[海峡群岛 (加利福尼亚州)|海峡群岛]]的[[聖克魯斯島 (美國)|圣克鲁斯]]、[[聖羅莎島 (加利福尼亞州)|圣罗莎]]和[[聖米格爾島 (加利福尼亞州)|圣米格尔]]这三个岛屿，此外也在缺乏稳定水源的[[安那卡帕島|阿纳卡帕]]岛定期居住。<ref name="nps">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070522182201/http://www.nps.gov/chis/historyculture/nativeinhabitants.htm "Native Inhabitants"].</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Chumash Indians on the Channel Islands |url=http://www.seathos.org/chumash-indians-on-the-channel-islands/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Sea•thos Foundation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911002012/http://www.seathos.org/chumash-indians-on-the-channel-islands/ |archive-date=September 11, 2014 |access-date=September 9, 2014}}</ref>
== 历史 ==
公元前7000年至4500年的“Millingstone Horizon”时期[[遗址]]发现了丘马什人活动痕迹<ref>Glassow et al. 2007: 192–196</ref>。“Chumash ”的意思是“珠子制作者”或“贝壳人”，他们会使用''Callianax biplicata''的壳制作串珠<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>。
随着[[中世紀]][[溫暖時期]]的到来，丘马什人人口激增<ref>Fagan, ''The Long Summer'', 2004, p. 222</ref>。在西方[[传教士]]抵达之前，他们拥有150多个村庄。
[[波利尼西亚人]]可能在[[哥伦布时代]]前的跨[[大洋]]接触(公元400年至800年间)曾到过丘马什人的领地，比[[克里斯托弗·哥伦布|哥伦布]]早了近1000年<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2FMNG9GDBBLG1.DTL |title=Did ancient Polynesians visit California? |access-date=2022-06-22 |archive-date=2007-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230013157/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F06%2F20%2FMNG9GDBBLG1.DTL |dead-url=no }}</ref>。 丘马什先进的独木舟“tomol ”<ref name="Gamble 156">(Gamble 156).</ref>设计见于整个波利尼西亚群岛，此外还有一些[[比较语言学]]的证据<ref>Arnold, Jeanne E. 1995.</ref><ref>Gamble, Lynn H. 2002.</ref>。
=== 西班牙到来和传教时期（1542-1834） ===
1542年，[[西班牙人]][[胡安·罗德里格斯·卡布里略]]成为第一个与上[[加利福尼亚]]沿海部落接触的[[欧洲人]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spanish California {{!}} Early California History: An Overview {{!}} Articles and Essays {{!}} California as I Saw It: First-Person Narratives of California's Early Years, 1849-1900 {{!}} Digital Collections {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/spanish-california/ |website=Library of Congress |access-date=2020-08-18 |archive-date=2022-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623183724/https://www.loc.gov/collections/california-first-person-narratives/articles-and-essays/early-california-history/spanish-california/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>。
卡布里略死后被埋葬在圣米格尔岛，但他的手下带回了一本[[日记]]，其中记载了许多丘马什村庄的名称和人口数量。
[[西班牙]]由此开始宣告对这片区域（现在的加利福尼亚州）的所有权，但直到1769年才第一批西班牙士兵和传教士才抵达这里。
到1770年底，他们已经在丘马什人所在地南部的[[聖地牙哥 (加利福尼亞州)|圣地亚哥]]和北部的[[蒙特雷 (加利福尼亚州)|蒙特雷]]建立了传教处和军事要塞<ref>Brown 1967</ref>。
随着[[欧洲人]]的到来，丘马什人和他们的传统生活方式受到了前所未有的冲击<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>。
[[圣路易斯奥比斯波传教士所]]（Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa）成立于1772年，是在丘马什地区的第一个[[传教所]]，也是其五个传教所中最北的。下一个成立的是1782年的、位于圣克拉拉河河口附近太平洋海岸的圣布埃纳文图拉传教所（Mission San Buenaventura）。同样位于[[太平洋]]海岸的还有1786年成立的圣巴巴拉传教所（Mission Santa Barbara）。
布里斯玛·康塞普西翁传教所（Mission La Purisima Concepción）于1789年在圣巴巴拉北部到圣路易斯奥比斯波沿线建立。最后一个圣伊内斯传教所（Mission Santa Ynez）于1804年在圣伊内斯河沿岸建立。大多数丘马什人都在1772年至1806年间加入了一个或多个传教所，但海峡群岛的大部分土著居民直到1816年才加入<ref>McLendon and Johnson 1999</ref>。
=== 墨西哥时代（1834-1848） ===
墨西哥于1834年控制了这些传教所。丘马什人要么逃往内地，要么被新的管理者奴役。他们很多都在墨西哥的大牧场上进行繁重的劳动。1849年后，随着人口减少和移民者的抢夺，大部分丘马什人失去了他们的土地。1855年100多名剩余的丘马什人被安置在圣伊内斯传教所附近的一小块{{cvt|120|acre}}的土地上，这片土地最终成为唯一的丘马什保留地。<ref>(Pritzker).</ref>
=== 美国时代（1848-） ===
1901年，丘马什人的圣伊内斯保留地（Santa Ynez Reservation）正式成立，但自1965年最后一位讲丘马什语（Barbareño language）的[[土著]]玛丽· 伊（Mary Yee）去世后，不再有丘马什人懂得说自己的[[母语]]。
1970年代开始，一些丘马什人开始追溯自己的[[血统]]并弘扬其[[传统文化]]。<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haley |first=Brian D. |last2=Wilcoxon |first2=Larry R. |date=September 2005 |title=How Spaniards Became Chumash and Other Tales of Ethnogenesis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_2005-09_107_3/page/432 |journal=American Anthropologist |publisher=American Anthropological Association |volume=107 |issue=3 |page=432–445 |doi=10.1525/aa.2005.107.3.432 |jstor=3567028}}</ref>
== 人口 ==
殖民者抵达前丘马什人口数量有许多说法。[[人类学家]][[阿尔弗雷德·路易斯·克鲁伯]]认为1770年的人口可能约为10,000<ref>A. L. Kroeber, p.883</ref>，艾伦·布朗（Alan K. Brown）认为约为15,000<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Alan K |year=1967 |title=The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel. |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116402079846 |journal=Reports of the University of California Archeological Survey |publisher=University of California |issue=69}}</ref>。舍伯恩·库克（Sherburne F. Cook）曾给出多个预测值，为8,000、13,650、20,400或18,500。<ref>S. F. Cook, 1976</ref>
一些学者<ref>Erlandson et al. 2001</ref>认为，在1542至1769年间由于与[[西班牙船员]]的间歇性接触导致疾病传入，丘马什人口也许已经大幅下降。最后，他们几乎被美国的[[加利福尼亚种族灭绝]]所消灭。1900年，他们的人数下降到200人，而目前估计在2,000<ref name="sdsu" />到5,000之间<ref name="nps"/>。
传统丘马什社会的人口结构相当复杂，一大特点是其“Aqi性别”。“Aqi”是丘马什人的是第三种性别，其生理上是男性，但从事女性工作并穿着女性服装。这一性别的存在可能与同性恋有关。<ref>{{Cite book|title=Archaeologies of sexuality|date=2000|publisher=Routledge|others=Schmidt, Robert A., 1953-, Voss, Barbara L., 1967-|isbn=978-0-415-22366-9|location=London|oclc=70746810}}</ref>
== 语言 ==
[[历史]]上曾存在多种[[丘马什语]]，这在[[语言学家]][[约翰·皮博迪·哈灵顿]]未发表的田野笔记中很详细的记录，但现在已经不存在任何丘马什母语人士。
丘马什语中记载比较多的是Barbareño 、 Ineseño和Ventureño这三种。
== 文化 ==
在西方传教士抵达之前，他们拥有150多个村庄，有多种[[方言]]。
他们懂得制作篮子、串珠，会使用[[草药]]，存在岩石艺术<ref>Barry.</ref>。他们拥有萨满，会观测星象，订制日历<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>。
===神话===
丘马什人的世界观的核心是万物有灵。根据托马斯·布莱克本（Thomas Blackburn），丘马什人没有[[創世神話]]，但苏珊·桑特里（Susan Suntree）说丘马什人“假设宇宙有三层或五层。
人类占据了由两条巨蛇撑起来的中间区域”，他们认为[[史前人]]（First People）被洪水毁灭，之后才是现在的历史。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Suntree|first=Susan|title=Sacred Sites: The Secret History of Southern California|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|year=2010|isbn=9780803231986|pages=276}}</ref>
人类的中层世界（'antap ）通过泉水和沼泽与下层世界 ( C'oyinahsup ) 相连，通过山脉与上层世界（Alapay）相连。下层世界生活着蛇、青蛙、蝾螈。当支撑中层世界的蛇扭动时，世界会发生地震。
[[水生生物]]也与下层世界的力量有联系，并且常出现在丘马什的岩石艺术中。上层世界生活着“天人”（sky people）居住的地方，主要形象为太阳、月亮、蜥蜴、天空狼（Sky Coyote）和鹰。太阳是生命之源，也是疾病和死亡之源。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bryan E.|first=Penprase|title=The Power of Stars: How Celestial Observations Have Shaped Civilization|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2010|isbn=9781441968036|pages=128–130}}</ref>
=== 篮子 ===
人类学家收集过不少丘马什人制作的篮子，现藏于[[史密森尼学会]]、[[人類博物館]]等不少博物馆中。
=== 串珠 ===
丘马什人会使用''Callianax biplicata''的壳制作串珠<ref name="Newton 4162">(Newton 416).</ref>，并将其用作货币，整个上加利福尼亚州都有发现这种[[货币]]。<ref name="Arnold 2001">Arnold 2001</ref>
=== 食物 ===
[[水獭]]和[[海豹]]等海洋动物是沿海丘马什居民的主要食物，但也有研究表示他们会用这些动物换取内陆的食物，如鹿肉<ref name="Gamble 156"/>。
此外还有食用各种[[鲍鱼]]、[[蛤蜊]]和[[海蜗牛]]<ref name="Hogan">{{Cite web |last=Hogan |first=C. M. |title=Los Osos Back Bay |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |url-status=dead |website=The Megalithic Portal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501082811/http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18353 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |access-date=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.nwmarinelife.com/htmlswimmers/s_nuttalli.html Intertidal Marine Invertebrates of the South Puget Sound (2008)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216051534/http://www.nwmarinelife.com/htmlswimmers/s_nuttalli.html|date=February 16, 2012}}</ref>。
[[橡子]]是一种重要的[[植物]]性食物，会被丘马什人磨碎并煮成汤<ref>{{Cite web |title=Daily Life {{!}} Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History |url=https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/daily-life |website=www.sbnature.org |access-date=2022-04-23 |archive-date=2022-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125193944/https://www.sbnature.org/collections-research/anthropology/chumash-life/daily-life |dead-url=no }}</ref>。他们还会用''Malosma laurina''的干燥果实制成面粉<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last=Timbrook |first=Jan |year=1990 |title=Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians, California, Based On Collections by John P. Harrington |journal=[[Economic Botany]] |volume=44 |issue=2 |page=236–253 |doi=10.1007/BF02860489 |s2cid=25807034}}</ref>。
=== 草药 ===
丘马什人懂得使用草药，比如他们会使用[[厚叶圣草]]治疗呼吸不畅<ref>{{Cite journal |last=James D. Adams Jr, Cecilia Garcia |year=2005 |title=Palliative Care Among Chumash People |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=2 |issue=2 |page=143–147 |doi=10.1093/ecam/neh090 |pmc=1142202 |pmid=15937554}}</ref>，用''Malosma laurina''的根皮制作治疗[[痢疾]]的草药茶<ref name="ReferenceA"/>。
丘马什人会使用[[圣曼陀罗]]制作的药水来进行成人礼。当一个男孩8岁时，他的母亲会给他准备一杯这种药水。这应该为了保证其精神健康，但一些男孩会被这种[[曼陀罗属]]植物毒死。<ref name="Garcia">{{Cite book|last=Cecilia Garcia, James D. Adams|title=Healing with medicinal plants of the west – cultural and scientific basis for their use|publisher=Abedus Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-9763091-0-9}}</ref>
== 参考书目 ==
* Arnold, Jeanne E. (ed.) 2001. ''The Origins of a Pacific Coast Chiefdom: The Chumash of the Channel Islands''. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Arnold | first1 = Jeanne E. | year = 1995 | title = Transportation Innovation and Social Complexity among Maritime Hunter-Gatherer Societies | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1995-12_97_4/page/733 | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 97 | issue = 4| pages = 733–747 | doi=10.1525/aa.1995.97.4.02a00150}}
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = Alan K. | year = 1967 | title = The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel | journal = University of California Archaeological Survey Reports | volume = 69 | pages = 1–99 }}
* Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. ''The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization''. University of California Press, Berkeley.
* Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. ''The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970''. University of California Press, Berkeley.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Coombs | first1 = G. | last2 = Plog | first2 = F. | year = 1977 | title = The conversion of the chumash Indians: An ecological interpretation | jstor = 4602423 | journal = Human Ecology | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 309–328 | doi=10.1007/bf00889174| s2cid = 153680246 }}
* Cordero R. The Ancestors Are Dreaming Us. News From Native California [serial online]. Spring2012 2012;25(3):4–27. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Dartt-Newton | first1 = D. | last2 = Erlandson | first2 = J. M. | year = 2006 | title = Little Choice for the Chumash: Colonialism, Cattle, and Coercion in Mission Period California | journal = American Indian Quarterly | volume = 30 | issue = 3/4| pages = 416–430 | doi=10.1353/aiq.2006.0020| s2cid = 161990367 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Erlandson | first1 = Jon M. | last2 = Rick | first2 = Torben C. | last3 = Kennett | first3 = Douglas J. | last4 = Walker | first4 = Philip L. | year = 2001 | title = Dates, demography, and disease: Cultural contacts and possible evidence for Old World epidemics among the Island Chumash | journal = Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 11–26 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Gamble | first1 = Lynn H. | year = 2002 | title = Archaeological Evidence for the Origin of the Plank Canoe in North America | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_2002-04_67_2/page/301 | journal = American Antiquity | volume = 67 | issue = 2| pages = 301–315 | doi=10.2307/2694568| jstor = 2694568 | s2cid = 163616908 }}
* Gamble, L. H., & Enki Library eBook. (2008). The chumash world at European contact (1st ed.). Us: University of California Press. Retrieved from http://sjpl.enkilibrary.org/EcontentRecord/11197
* Glassow, Michael A., Lynn H. Gamble, Jennifer E. Perry, and Glenn S. Russell. 2007. Prehistory of the Northern California Bight and the Adjacent Transverse Ranges. In ''California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity''. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York and Plymouth UK: Altamira Press.
* Hogan, C. Michael. 2008. [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18502 ''Morro Creek''.] Ed. A. Burnham.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = Terry L. | last2 = Klar | first2 = Kathryn A. | year = 2005 | title = Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-antiquity_2005-07_70_3/page/457 | journal = American Antiquity | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 457–484 | doi=10.2307/40035309| jstor = 40035309 | s2cid = 161301055 }}
* King, Chester D. 1991. ''Evolution of Chumash Society: A Comparative Study of Artifacts Used for Social System Maintenance in the Santa Barbara Channel Region before A.D. 1804''. New York and London, Garland Press.
* Kroeber, A. L. 1925. ''Handbook of the Indians of California''. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78. Washington, D.C.
* McLendon, Sally and John R. Johnson. 1999. ''Cultural Affiliation and Lineal Descent of Chumash Peoples in the Channel Islands and the Santa Monica Mountains''. 2 volumes. Prepared for the Archeology and Ethnography Program, National Park Service by Hunter College, City University of New York and the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History.
* Mithun, Marianne. (1999). ''The Languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-23228-9}}.
* Pritzker, Barry M. ''A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-19-513877-1}}.
* Pritzker, Barry M. (2014). Chumash. In The American Mosaic: The American Indian Experience. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from http://americanindian2.abc-clio.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/
Sandos J. Christianization among the Chumash: an ethnohistoric perspective. American Indian Quarterly [serial online]. Winter91 1991;15:65–89. Available from: OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson), Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
* ''Santa Barbara Independent''. (2010, December 15). [http://www.independent.com/news/2010/dec/15/chumash-foundation-10000-grant-helps-foodbank-serv/ Chumash foundation $10,000 grant helps food bank serve healthy meals.]
* {{cite journal | last1 = Timbrook | first1 = J. | last2 = Johnson | first2 = J. R. | last3 = Earle | first3 = D. D. | year = 1982 | title = Vegetation burning by the chumash | jstor=27825120 | journal = Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology | volume = 4 | issue = 2| pages = 163–186 }}
* [http://www.indianz.com/IndianGaming/2015/04/08/chumash-tribe-and-leaders-sued.asp Chumash Tribe sued over casino expansion]
== 外部链接 ==
* [http://www.santaynezchumash.org/ Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians]
* [http://www.chumashlanguage.com Inezeño Chumash Language Tutorial]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120316214015/http://www.coastalbandofthechumashnation.com/ Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation]
* [http://avim.parks.ca.gov Antelope Valley Indian Museum] } at [[California Department of Parks and Recreation]]
* [http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/maritime/cultures.html Native Cultures and the Maritime Heritage Program] , [[NOAA]]
* [http://www.BarbarenoChumashCouncil.com/ Barbareno Chumash Council]
* [http://www.NorthernChumash.org/ Northern Chumash Tribal Council]
* [http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=602 Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park]
* [http://www.rain.org/video/tumamait.html Chumash Singer and Storyteller Julie Tumamait-Stenslie]
* [http://www.chumashindianmuseum.com Chumash Indian Museum, Thousand Oaks, CA]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401012137/http://www.sbnature.org/research/anthro/chumash/local.htm Map of Chumash towns at the time of European Settlement]
* {{Cite web
|title = Wishtoyo Foundation's Chumash Discovery Village, Malibu, CA
|url = http://www.wishtoyo.org/projects-cultural-nc-chumash-discovery-village.html
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121222032137/http://www.wishtoyo.org/projects-cultural-nc-chumash-discovery-village.html
|archive-date = 2012-12-22
}}
== 参考文献 ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:美國人]]